SIKHISM

Sikhism

Introduction and Early HistoryThe Sikhism which has about 23 million adherents all over the world, is one of the youngest but least well-known of the world’s monotheistic traditions. Majority of the Sikhs live in the North westerly Indian state of Punjab. Sikhs (the word Sikh means a disciple or learner) are the followers of Guru Nanak (1469-1539) and the nine successive Gurus ending with 10th Guru, Gobind Singh (1666-1708) who passed the Guru ship to the Holy Scripture Adi Granth, thus giving it the status of Guru Granth which became perpetual Guru of the Sikhs. During his time, Guru Nanak traveled far and wide; this period spread over two decades and his travel extended up to Dacca (In present day Bangladesh) and Assam in the East, Sri Lanka in the South, Himalayas up to Tibet in the North and Mecca, Medina, Baghdad and Istanbul in the West. This phase of traveling ended in the early 1520s, when Guru Nanak began to give his “mission” of spreading divine glory its final form. He founded Kartarpur and established a new community. Here, Nanak was revered with the title of “Guru” and his followers were called the Sikhs. Congregational prayers constituted the heart of Sikh devotional life and Sikh men and women gathered and sang the praises of the Creator, expressed in the compositions of Guru Nanak, accompanied by musical instruments. After Guru Nanak, his successors continued to compose verses that highlighted the Guru as the medium of revelation. By the end of the sixteenth century the Sikhs were well entrenched in central Punjab. Sikh “Manjis” (In essence seat of authority) were established in towns such as Bukhara, Kabul, Lahore, Delhi, Agra, Banaras and Patna which were all situated on the trade route connecting central Asia with eastern India. There are also references of Sikhs living in coastal towns in the south and Kashmir in the north. The self-definition of the Sikh community developed considerably, and by the start of the seventeenth century, it had a sacred text, a sacred mythology, a sacred geography, and a sacred calendar with a leader who decided their belief system and practice, and was empathic that his path was distinct from those followed by Hindus and Muslims.
BeliefsThe Sikh call their beliefs ‘Gurmat’ (Guru’s Thinking), and they are constructed around two basic assumptions. First, the content was revealed to the Gurus and is thus of divine origin. Second, the search for and the knowledge of truth are important, but living with these aims is the paramount goal of Sikh life. A belief that does not find expression in practical action has no place in Sikh thought. • GodIn Sikhism God by himself is the one Ultimate, Transcendent Realty, without attributes, Timeless, Boundless, Formless, Ever-existent, Immutable, Ineffable, All by himself and even Unknowable in His entirety. God in Sikh Scripture has been referred to by several names, picked from Indian and Semitic traditions. Some traditional names are Ram, Narayan, Gobind, Gopal, Allah, and Khuda. He is also addressed in both Negative and Positive terms. God is both Transcendent and Immanent. One ejaculatory phrase Waheguru (Wondrous Enlightener), expressing awe, wonder and ecstatic joy of the worshipper, as he comprehends the immenseness and grandeur of the Lord of Creation is the Sikh Mantra to address God. The Sikhs believe in the unity and unique nature of Waheguru. God has no relatives, no mother, no father, no wife, no son, and no rival who may become a potential contender. God is omnipotent and omnipresent, transcendent Sovereign (GG. 597) • CreationA single divine call resulted in the rise of complicated structures with the sky, the earth, and all the myriad of forms of vegetation and life. For the Sikhs, the universe by definition represents divine immanence. It cannot reach the purity of divine attributes, and is not true or eternal when compared to the reality of Waheguru, but as the divine creation, it enjoys a high level of truth and beauty (GG, 463, 580) • Human BeingsFor Guru Nanak, human life is a precious jewel (GG,156) and its goal is to attain liberation, which is to be one with God by having respectful place in the divine court (GG,942). The search for liberation works at two distinct levels – spiritual and temporal – which are closely interwoven. The first level concerns a relationship with Waheguru while the second concerns a relationship with fellow human beings and the world in general. For Sikhs, the Guru is a special being, the bearer of the divine word. He is like the sandalwood tree, which imparts fragrance to whoever comes near it. The Human mind suffers from a fundamental flaw of self-centeredness or Ego and as a result, human beings tend to see themselves as masters of their own destiny. This state of mind prevents them from recognizing their humble place in this universe created by Waheguru. The mind is naturally fickle and tends to be attracted to and involved in material pursuits. For this reason, bringing the mind under control becomes pre-requisite to effect spiritual elevation. In the writings of the Gurus, liberation is not achieved in isolation or renunciation, but with the context of family and domestic responsibility (GG, 61). Family ethic is further expanded to include obligations toward the good of the community, which implies a life of high social commitment. Religious life demands the qualities of hard work, as well as the need to share the fruit of their labor with others (GG, 1215). The need to show kindness toward all people as well as natural world would shape Sikh views on socio-political-ecological ethics.
Worship and Devotional activity Sikhs are supposing to worship only one primal being or Waheguru, the Guru Granth is their source of divine knowledge. In Sikh devotions, men, women, and children submit themselves to Waheguru (GG,474), sing and listen to the divine praises (GG,2), give thanks for the gift of human birth and the bounties that accompany it (GG,414), and seek help with the problems that may confront them(GG,519). The experience of prayer is both personal and congregational, though the Sikhs firmly believe that the collective supplication of a congregation never goes unfulfilled. Place of Congregational worship is known as Gurudwara, where in the main hall Holy Scripture is placed on an altar under a canopy, an attendant or a scripture reader who can be of either Gender sitting behind Guru Granth with a ceremonial flywhisk. As a mark of respect men, women and children cover their head and submit themselves to the presence of the divine word by touching their forehead to the ground in front of the text. Congregation sits on the side or in front of the scripture to listen to the singing of the hymns with music from the devotional singers and discourses by the preachers explaining the verses of Guru Granth... The prayers are followed by the distribution of the Karah Prasad (Blessed wheat pudding) prepared from equal quantity of flour, sugar and clarified butter.
Sikh Scriptures • Guru GranthThe holiest of the Sikh scriptures is Guru Granth Sahib. It was called Adi Granth (first scripture) until Guru Gobind Singh conferred on it the title of the Guru in 1708, after which it was called Guru Granth Sahib and nothing can be added or changed in it The text was compiled by 5th Guru Arjan in 1604 which included hymns of his 4 predecessors and his own along with the writings Sikh Bards and non Sikh ‘Bhagtas’ (Devotees or Saints) whose writings conform with Gurus’ thinking, they all belonged to various regions, were Hindus and Muslims, of higher and lower castes or social order. Guru Gobind Singh, later (1706), added the hymns of 9th Guru Teg Bahadur in it and declared it to be the Guru of the Sikhs. • Dasam GranthTenth Guru Gobind Singh did not include his own poetry or writings in Guru Granth Sahib. Dasam Granth which was written after his death is revered by Sikhs and many of its writings are accepted as that of the 10th master but it is not accepted in its entirety by all as the authenticity of several writings in it and their association with Guru Gobind Singh is questionable. • Others o Varan Bhai GurdasVaran Bhai Gurdas is the name given to the 40 Varan (Chapters) of writings by Bhai Gurdas, the first scribe of Guru Granth Sahib and a scholar of great repute. His writings are considered ‘Key to Guru Granth Sahib’. o Bhai Nand Lal’s WorkNand Lal was a scribe and Persian scholar of Guru Gobind Singh’s time and was closely associated and devoted to the Guru. His writings, mainly in Persian poetry is another text which is often quoted by preachers and sang by the devotional singers at the Gurdwara services. Important, Sikh Festivals • Guru Gobind Singh’s Birthday, Celebrated in January o Guru Gobind Singh was born in 1666 in Patna (Bihar) India • Baisakhi or Vaisakhi, Celebrated in April as Birth day of Khalsa o On this day in 1699, Tenth Guru Gobind Singh formed the order of Khalsa some time also called the tradition of Saint – Soldier. He instructed his Sikhs to follow a certain code of conduct and gave them external article of faith to keep, which are Kesh (Unshorn Hairs), Kara (Iron Bracelet), Kanga (Wooden Comb), Kachha (Baggy Short) and Kirpan (Sword) the word Kirpan itself means "mercy, grace, or magnanimity", each of these article of faith symbolizes certain moral and spiritual values. Every male Sikh was given the name Singh and every female the name Kaur to shun caste distinction and symbolizing equality. • Guru Arjan’s Martyrdom, Celebrated in June • Fifth Guru of Sikhs who first compiled the Sikh Scripture Adi Granth and constructed Harmandar (Golden Temple) Amritsar whose foundation stone was laid by Sufi Saint Mian Mir, in 1588. He was tortured and killed on the orders of Mogul King on May 1606 at Lahore, Pakistan • Installation of Guru Granth Sahib, Celebrated in October o 10th Guru Gobind Singh stopped human lineage of Guru ship and bestowed Guru ship to the Holy Scripture in October 1708 at Hazur Sahib (Nanded), Maharashtra, India • Diwali, Celebrated in November o Sikhs celebrate Diwali to commemorate the arrival of 6th Guru Hargobind at Amritsar from Gwalior where he was imprisoned by the Emperor who after realizing his mistake, released the Guru who also got released 52 innocent petty hill rulers imprisoned there. • Guru Nanak’s Birthday, Traditionally celebrated in November o Guru Nanak was born in 1469 at Talwandi, the place now known as Nankana Sahib in Pakistan • Guru Tegh Bahadur’s Martyrdom, Celebrated in November/December o Ninth Guru of the Sikhs, who stood for human rights of every one to practice his or her religion of choice, was arrested under the order of Mogul Emperor Aurangzeb, was tortured and beheaded in November 1675 at Delhi, India.

HINDUISM

Hinduism

Early History of HinduismHinduism is derived from the Persian word for Indian. It differs from Christianity and other Western religions in that it does not have a single founder, a specific theological system, a single system of morality, or religious organization. Its roots are traceable to the Indus valley civilization circa 4000 to 2200 B.C.E. Its development was influenced by many invasions over thousands of years. One of the major influences occurred when Indo-Europeans invaded Northern India (circa 1500 to 500 B.C.E.) from the steppes of Russia and Central Asia. They brought with them their religion of Vedism. These beliefs became mixed with the indigenous Indian beliefs.During the first few centuries of the Common Era, many sects were created, each dedicated to a specific deity. Typical among these were the goddesses Shakti and Lakshmi, and the gods Skanda and Surya. Hinduism grew to become the world's third largest religion, claiming about 13% of the world's population. It is the dominant religion in India, and it is also widespread in Malaysia and Sri Lanka. Hindus totaled 157,015 in Canada's 1991 census.
Sacred TextsThe most important of all Hindu texts is the Bhagavad Gita which is a poem describing a conversation between a warrior Arjuna and his charioteer Krishna. The Vedas survive in the Rigveda, a collection of over a thousand hymns. Other texts include the Brahmans, the Sutras, and the Aranyakas.
Hindu Beliefs and Practices• The monotheistic principle that all reality is a unity and the entire universe is one divine entity is at the heart of Hinduism. Deity is simultaneously visualized as a triad: • Brahma: the Creator who is continuing to create new realities • Vishnu: the Preserver, who preservers these new creations. Whenever dharma (eternal order, righteousness, religion, law and duty) is threatened, Vishnu travels from heaven to earth in one of ten incarnations. • Shiva: the Destroyer is at times compassionate, erotic and destructive. Simultaneously, many hundreds of Hindu gods and goddesses are worshipped as various aspects of that unity. Depending upon one’s view, Hinduism can be looked upon as a monotheistic, trinitarian, or polytheistic religion.The Rigveda defines five social castes. According to this system, one’s caste determines the range of jobs or professions from which one can choose. Marriages normally take place within the same caste. In decreasing status, the five castes are:• Brahmins (the priests and academics) • Kshatriyas (the military), • Vaishyas (farmers and merchants) • Sudras (peasants and servants). • Harijan (the outcasts, commonly known as the untouchables) Although the caste system was abolished by law in 1949, it remains a significant force throughout India, particularly in the south. Humans are perceived as being trapped in samsara, a meaningless cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth. Karma is the accumulated sum of one’s good and bad deeds. Karma determines how you will live your next life. Through pure acts, thoughts and devotion, one can be reborn at a higher level. Eventually, one can escape samsara and achieve enlightenment. Bad deeds can cause a person to be reborn at a lower level, or even as an animal. The unequal distribution of wealth, prestige, and suffering are thus seen as natural consequences of one’s previous acts – both in this life and in previous lives.Meditation is often practiced, with Yoga being the most common. Other activities include daily devotions, public rituals, and puja a ceremonial dinner for a god.
Hindu Sects and DenominationsModern Hinduism is divided into four major devotional sects: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. Vaishnavism and Shaivism are generally regarded as monotheistic sects: each believes in one supreme God, who is identified as Vishnu in Vaishnavism and Shiva in Shaivism. Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism are the most prevalent Hindu sects; among these, Vaishnavism is the largest. The devotional sects do not generally regard other sects as rivals, and each sect freely borrows beliefs and practices from others. In addition to the four theistic sects, there are six schools of Vedantic philosophy within Hinduism. These schools tend to emphasize Ultimate Reality as Brahman, the great "Self" who must be realized to attain liberation. The six Astika (orthodox; accepting the authority of the Vedas) schools of Hindu philosophy are Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa (also called just 'Mimamsa'), and Uttara Mimamsa (also called 'Vedanta'). Of these six, three continue to be influential in Hinduism: Purva Mimamsa, Yoga, and Vedanta.
Holy Days in Hinduism1. Maha Shivarathri, is a festival dedicated to Shiva in mid-February2. Holi, a spring festival, is held in early March. It is a carnival-like celebration featuring bright colors, bonfires, and pilgrimages. It is dedicated to Krishna or Kama, the God of Pleasure.3. Ramnavami, the anniversary of the birth of Rama, is held in late March. Rama was an incarnation of Vishnu.4. Wesak, the birthday of the Buddha is celebrated in early April by Buddhists in the Mahayana tradition.5. Dusserah, a festival celebrating the triumph of good over evil is in early November. It is derived from early Hindu stories of struggles between a Goddess and a demon.6. Diwali, the Indian Festival of Lights is held in mid November. It is mainly dedicated to Lakshmi, the Goddess of Wealth. It is the Hindu New Year.

BUDDHISM

Buddhism


HistoryBuddhism was founded in Northern India by Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama , circa 563-483 BCE). At the age of 29, he left his wife, children and political activities in order to seek truth. Leaving one’s family to lead the life of an ascetic was an accepted practice at the time for some men. He studied Brahmanism, but ultimately rejected it. In 535 BCE, he reached enlightenment and assumed the title Buddha (one who has awakened). He is also referred to as the Sakyamuni, (sage of the Sakya clan). He promoted The Middle Way and rejected the extreme ways of hedonism or the mortification of the flesh as paths toward the state of Nirvana. He had many disciples and accumulated a large following by the time of his death in his early 80's. Two and a half centuries later, a council of Buddhist monks collected and recorded his teachings and the oral traditions of the faith in written form, called the Tripitaka. This included a very large collection of commentaries and traditions; most are called Sutras (discourses).
Buddhist BeliefsBuddhists believe in reincarnation: the concept that one must go through many cycles of birth, living, and death. If a person releases his attachment to desire and the self, he can attain Nirvana after many such cycles.With some simplification, Buddha's Four Noble Truths may be described as:• to be fully understood: the universality of suffering • to be abandoned: the desire to have and control things that cause suffering • to be made visible: the supreme truth and final liberation of nirvana that is achieved as the cause of suffering is eliminated – the mind experiences complete freedom and liberation • to be brought into being: the truth of the eightfold ariya path leading to the cessation of suffering. His Eightfold Path consists of:• 1. right understanding • 2. right thinking • 3. right speech • 4. right conduct • 5. right livelihood • 6. right effort • 7. right mindfulness • 8. right concentration
Buddhist SectsBuddhism is not a single monolithic religion. Many of its adherents have combined the teachings of Buddha with local religious rituals, beliefs and customs. Little conflict occurs, because Buddhism at its core is a philosophical system to which such additions can be easily grafted.Splits occurred among his followers after Buddha's death. Currently, there are three main systems of thought within Buddhism which are geographically and philosophically separate. Each tradition in turn has many sects. One source (J.R. Hinnels, A Handbook of Living Religions, Penguin, 1991) divides the religion into three main groups by their location:Southern Buddhism (known as Therevada Buddhism) has 100 million followers, mainly in Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Sri Lanka and Thailand, and parts of Vietnam. It started in Sri Lanka when Buddhist missionaries arrived from India. They promoted the Vibhajjavada School (Separative Teaching). By the 15th century, this form of the religion reached almost its present extent.Concepts and practices include:• Dana - thoughtful, ceremonial giving• Sila - accepting Buddhist teaching and following it in practice• Refraining from killing, stealing, wrong behavior, and use of drugs - on special days, three additional precepts may be added: restricting adornment, entertainment, and comfort• Karma - the balance of accumulated sin and merit, which will determine ones future in the present life, and the nature of the next life to come• The Cosmos - consists of billions of worlds grouped into clusters, clusters are grouped into galaxies, which are themselves grouped into super-galaxies. The universe also has many levels: four underworlds and 21 heavenly realms • Paritta - ritual chantingWorship: of the relics of Buddha, of items made by Buddha, or of symbolic relics. Festivals: days of the full moon, and three other days during the lunar cycle are celebrated. There is a new year's festival, and celebrations tied to the agricultural year. Pilgrimages: particularly to Buddhist sites in Sri Lanka and India. Eastern Buddhism is the predominant religion in China, Japan, Korea, and much of Vietnam. Buddhism's Mahayana tradition entered China during the Han dynasty (206 BCE to 220 CE). It found initial acceptance there among the workers; later, it gradually penetrated the ruling class. Buddhism reached Japan in the 6th century. It underwent severe repression during the 1960's in China during the Cultural Revolution.Eastern Buddhism contains many distinct schools: T'ein-t'ai, Hua-yen, Pure Land teachings, and the Meditation School. They celebrate New Years, harvest festivals, and five anniversaries from the lives of Buddha and of the Bodhissattva Kuan-yin. They also engage in Dana, Sila, Chanting, Worship, and Pilgrimage.Northern Buddhism has approximately 10 million adherents in China, Mongolia, Russia, and Tibet. It entered Tibet circa 640 CE. Conflict with the native Tibetan religion of Bon caused it to go largely underground until its revival in the 11th century. The heads of the Gelu School of the Buddhist teaching became the Dalai Lama, and ruled Tibet. It has been wrongly dismissed as a degenerate form of Buddhism until recently.Ceremony and ritual are emphasized. They also engage in Dana, Sila, Chanting, Worship, and Pilgrimage. They developed the practice of searching out a young child at the time of the death of an important teacher. The child is believed to be the successor to the deceased teacher. They celebrate New Years, harvest festivals, and the anniversaries of the five important events in the life of Buddha. Buddhist and Tibetan culture suffered greatly during the Cultural Revolution in China when an attempt was made to destroy all religious beliefs.
Buddhism in the WestSouthern Buddhism became established in Europe early in this century. The Zen Buddhist tradition of Eastern Buddhism has also made inroads, particularly in North America. Canadian Buddhists totaled 163,415 in the 1991 census.(Our thanks to the Ontario Religious Tolerance Site for this Information…)Holy Days in Buddhism1. The Nirvana Day is held in mid February. It commemorates the death of Siddhartha Gautama, Buddha.2. New Year’s Day is also celebrated in mid-February in China, Korea, and Vietnam.3. Wesak is Buddha's birthday in April or May. In some traditions, this day is intended to celebrate Buddha's birth, enlightenment, and death together.4. Khao Pansa marks the beginning of the Buddhist lent. In some countries, it is the preferred day for Buddhist men to be ordained as monks. It is celebrated in the full moon of the eighth lunar month, typically July.5. Boun Ok Pansa marks the end of lent. It is at the end of the rainy season, in October.6. Bodhi Day, in early December, celebrates Buddha's enlightenment in 596 B.C.E.

JUDAISM

Early History of Judaism

Circa 2000 BCE, the G-d of the ancient Israelites established a divine covenant with Abraham, making him the patriarch of many nations. From his name, the term Abrahamic Religions is derived; these are the three religions which trace their roots back to Abraham: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The book of Genesis describes the events surrounding the lives of the four patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Joseph. Moses was the next leader. He led his people out of captivity in Egypt, and received the Law from G-d. After decades of wandering through wilderness, Joshua led the tribes into the Palestine, which they believed to be the Promised Land, driving out the Canaanites through a series of military battles.The original tribal organization was converted into a Kingdom by Samuel; their first king was Saul. The second king, David, established Jerusalem as the religious and political center. The third king, Solomon built the first temple there.Division into the Northern kingdom of Israel and the Southern kingdom of Judah occurred shortly after the death of Solomon in 922 B.C.E. Israel fell to Assyria in 722 B.C.E.; Judah fell to the Babylonians in 587 B.C.E. The temple was destroyed. Some Jews returned from captivity under the Babylonians and started to restore the temple in 536 B.C.E. Alexander the Great invaded the area in 332 B.C.E. From circa 300 to 63 B.C.E., Greek became the language of commerce, and Greek culture had a major influence on Judaism. In 63 B.C.E., the Roman Empire took control of Palestine.Three religious sects had formed by the 1st century C.E.: Sadducees, Pharisees, and Essenes. Many anticipated the arrival of a Messiah who would drive the Roman invaders out and restore independence. Many mini-revolts led to the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple in 70 C.E. Jews were scattered throughout the known world. Their religion was no longer centered in Jerusalem and they were prohibited from setting foot there. Judaism became decentralized and stopped seeking converts. The local synagogue became the new center of Jewish life, and authority shifted from the centralized priesthood to local scholars and teachers, giving rise to Rabbinic Judaism.The period from the destruction of the temple onward gave rise to heavy persecution by Christians throughout Europe. The Christians held the Jews responsible for the execution of Jesus. In the 1930s and 1940s, Adolf Hitler and the German Nazi party drew on centuries of anti-Semitism (and upon their own psychotic beliefs in racial purity) when they organized the Holocaust, the attempted extermination of all Jews in Europe. About 6 million were killed in one of the world's greatest examples of religious and racial intolerance.The Zionist movement that started in the nineteenth century was one of the responses to persecution. Its initial goal was creating a Jewish homeland in Palestine. The state of Israel was formed on May 18, 1948 following the Second World War. Currently, there are about 18 million Jews throughout the world and approximately 7 million of them live in North America.
Jewish TextsThe Tanakh is composed of three groups of books:• the Torah Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. • the Nevi'im, the Prophetic books of Isaiah, Amos, etc. • the Ketuvim, the "Writings" including Kings, Chronicles, etc. The Talmud contains stories, laws, medical knowledge, debates about moral choices, etc. It is composed of the material that originates from two main sources:• the Mishnah – 6 chapters containing a series of laws from the Hebrew Scriptures, arranged about 200 C.E. • the Gemera (one Babylonian and one Palestinian) – an assembly of comments from hundreds of Rabbis from 200 - 500 C.E., along with a passage from the Mishnah.
Jewish Belief and Practice• G-d is the creator and absolute ruler of the universe.• Judaism affirms the inherent goodness of the world and its people as creations of G-d. Believers are able to sanctify their lives and draw closer to G-d by fulfilling mitzvot (divine commandments). No savior is needed as an intermediary. • The Jews are G-d's chosen people.• The Ten Commandments, as delineated in Exodus 20:1-17 and Deuterotomy 5:6-21, form the core of Jewish practice.• The need to follow the many dietary and other laws of the Torah.• Boys reach the status of Bar Mitzvah (literally son of the commandment) on their 13th birthday; girls reach Bat Mitzvah (daughter of the commandment) on their 12th birthday. This means that they are recognized as adults and are personally responsible to follow the Jewish commandments and laws; they are allowed to lead a religious service; they are counted in a "minyan" (a quota necessary to perform certain parts of religious services); they can sign contracts; they can testify in religious courts; theoretically, they can marry, although the Talmud recommends 18 to 24 as the proper age for marriage. • Observation of the Sabbath (the day of rest), starting at sundown on Friday evening• Strict religious discipline governs almost all areas of life • Regular attendance at Synagogue • Celebration of the annual festivals that include: The Passover, which is held each Spring to recall their deliverance out of slavery in Egypt. A ritual Seder meal is eaten in each observing Jewish home at this time. Some Passover dates are: 1998 - 11th April, 1999 - 1st April, 2000 - 20th April ,The 10 days from Rosh Hashanah (New Year) to Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement) which are days of fasting and penitence. Some Rosh Hashanah dates are 1998 - 21 September, 1999 - 11th September, 2000 - 30tth Spetember• Bar Mitzvah and Bat Mitzvah ceremonies are commonly held to recognize the coming-of-age of a Jewish youth. Shortly after their birthday, (13th for a male; 12th for a female), they recite a blessing during a Saturday Shabbat service. In most cases, they might handle additional functions, like reading the assigned text from the Torah, or leading the congregation in prayer. etc.. They often make a speech which, by tradition, starts with "Today I am a man." The youth's father often recites a blessing in appreciation for no longer being burdened with the responsibility of his child's sins. Within Orthodox and Chasidic practice, women are not allowed to take leadership roles in religious services. For them, a Bat Mitzvah celebration is basically a party.
Jewish SectsThere are five main forms of Judaism in the world today:• Conservative Judaism: This began in the mid-nineteenth century as a reaction against the Reform movement. It is a main-line movement midway between Reform and Orthodox. • Humanistic Judaism: This is a small group, mainly composed of atheists and agnostics, who regard mankind as the measure of all things. • Orthodox Judaism: This the oldest and most conservative form of Judaism. They attempt to observe their religion as close to its original forms as possible. They look upon every word in their sacred texts as being divinely inspired. • Reconstructionist Judaism: This is a new liberal movement started by Mordecai Kaplan as an attempt to unify and revitalize the religion. They reject the concept that Jews are a uniquely favored and chosen people. • Reform Judaism: A liberal group that follows the ethical laws of Judaism but leaves the decision whether to follow or ignore the dietary and other traditional laws to the individuals’ discretion. They use modern forms of worship. (Our thanks to the Religious Tolerance Organization of Ontario for the Information on this page…)

Holy Days in Judaism1. 1st of Tishri, Rosh Hashanah; "Head of the Year", The Jewish New Year, and the anniversary of the completion of creation. 2. 10th of Tishri ,Yom Kippur; "Day of Atonement", A day of fasting and praying which occurs 10 days after the first day of Rosh Hashanah. The holiest day in the year. 3. 15th of Tishri, Sukkot; "Season of our rejoicing; Feast of Tabernacles", The Feast of Booths is an 8 day harvest festival; a time of thanksgiving. This was considered the most important Jewish festival in 1st cent.4. 25th of Kislev, Hanukkah, Chanukah; "Feast of Dedication", The Feast of Lights is an 8 day Feast of Dedication. It recalls the war fought by the Maccabees in the cause of religious freedom.5. 14th of Adar, Purim; "Feast of Lots", The Feast of Lots recalls the defeat by Queen Esther of the plan to slaughter all of the Persian Jews, circa 400 BCE. 6. 15th Nissan, Pesach; "Passover" , The 8 day festival recalls the exodus of the Israelites from slavery in Egypt circa 1300 BCE. A holiday meal, the Seder, is held at home.7. 6th of Sivan; 50 days after Pesach, Shavouth; "Festival of Weeks", Pentacost (a.k.a. Feast of Weeks) recalls God's revelation of the Torah to the Jewish people.

CHRISTIANITY

Christianity
Early HistoryChristianity is based on the teachings of a Jesus, who lived in the Roman provinces of Palestine. His disciples originally called themselves "Christian Jews," but soon this changed into just “Christians” or 'little Christs”. The number of Christians grew very quickly during the 50 years after the death of Jesus. St. Peter went to Rome and preached about Jesus there. St. Paul traveled widely and converted many people to the new religion. The other disciples also traveled all over the Middle East and beyond. Some people believe that one of the disciples reached even India. After the Roman Emperor Constantine adopted Christianity in 312 C.E., Roman soldiers took the new religion all over the Roman Empire as far as the borders of Scotland in the North, North Africa in the South, Wales in the West, and the lands of modern Russia in the East.The spread of the new religion of Islam in the Middle East and North Africa challenged Christianity beginning from the seventy century on, but by the year 1000 the majority of Europeans were Christians. In 1054, the church in the East split away from the church in the West. This was known as the great Schism. Rome became the "capital" of the Western (or Roman Catholic) church, and Constantinople (now called Istanbul) the capital of the Eastern (or Orthodox Catholic) church.In 1517 Martin Luther nailed a list of 95 "protests" on the door of a church in Wittenberg and this was the start of the Protestant movement. One of the main groups to split away from the Roman Catholic Church was the Church of England or the Anglican Church. Over the next 300 years many other groups split away from either the Roman Catholic Church or the Church of England.In the 1700s and 1800s the major European nations were expanding and creating empires around the world. They took their religion with them. Soon Christianity was established and growing in Africa (mainly Protestant) and South America (mainly Roman Catholic). By the end of the 1800s Christianity was established all over the world. It continued to grow in Africa and South America in the 1900s and in South East Asia in the last few decades. Currently, the number of Christians is diminishing only in Europe.Today, there are over two billion Christians in the world and all of this has its roots in a handful of disciples that followed a man called Jesus of Nazareth 2,000 years ago.
Sacred TextsWhile some of the associated sects have their own texts, the vast majority of Christians have only one sacred text known as the Bible (from Greek “Bibles” for book or record). The Bible is divided into two major and one minor sections.• Old or Hebrew Scriptures*: These are shared with Jews and are used as the history of the world before the coming of Jesus.• The New or Christian Scriptures*: These tell the story of the life of Jesus, the development and the writings of the Early Church, and the prophecies about the end of the world.• The Apocrypha: A collection of the stories of prophets and writings, which are not commonly agreed upon by the major sects. *These are the commonly agreed sections found in all Bibles.
Belief and PracticeThere is an enormous range of belief systems among Christians, but the majority agrees on three main areas:• God is a monotheistic deity revealed in the works of the creation, in the person of Jesus, and in the presence of the spirit. God is the judge of all and the supreme authority. • Jesus: Most Christians give a place of authority to Jesus Christ. They acknowledge his special relationship with God as the son of God, and his teachings constitute the basis of the Christian belief and lifestyle. • The Bible has an important place as the written authority on the commandments (laws) of God, on the life of Jesus, and on the life of the early church. Most Christians would regard the bible as an important part of their understanding of God and as a special part of their understanding of the way they should live.The Christian year starts at Advent and runs through the year in a series of seasons. The seasons of Advent and Lent are seasons of preparation for the two most important festivals, both linked to events in the life of Jesus.• Christmas - celebrating the birth of Jesus in Bethlehem to Mary• Easter - celebrating the death, resurrection and eventual rising of Jesus to heavenMost Christians will have three elements at the centre of their worship:• Eucharist: The recreation of the last supper when Jesus ate with his disciples before his crucifixion. The elements of bread and wine are used to represent Jesus' body and blood. • Exposition: Using the message of the bible, the teachings of Jesus and those of other Christians to explain the workings of the world and to formulate responses to situations in the world today. • Prayer: Communication with God in supplication, confession, adoration, and thanksgiving both corporate and private.
Sects and DivisionsIt is possible to divide the world's Christians in 5 main groups• Roman Catholics, based in Rome under the authority of the Pope • Orthodox, split into two main groups Russian and Greek • Protestants, split into many differing factions, but with a priestly / ministerial structure • "Free Church" individual self governing church groups • Associated sects - which have some common ground with mainstream Christianity
Holy Days in Christianity1. Lent, a period of fasting and prayer begins on Ash Wednesday, 40 days before Easter Sunday.2. Palm Sunday is recognized 7 days before Easter Sunday; it is the beginning of the Holy Week.3. Holy Thursday, (also called Maundy Thursday), remembers the Last Supper. The term "Maundy" was derived from the old Latin name for the day, "Dies Mandatum," – "the day of the new commandment."4. Good Friday, (also called Holy Friday), commemorates the execution of Jesus by the Roman army of occupation.5. Easter Sunday celebrates the resurrection of Jesus.6. Ascension Thursday, (also called Ascension Day), occurs 40 days after Easter Sunday; it commemorates the ascension of Jesus to heaven.7. Pentecost, (also known as Whit Sunday), is the 7th Sunday after Easter, the day when the Holy Spirit is reported as having descended upon the Apostles. 8. The first day of Advent is the Sunday which is closest to November 30; it foretells the coming of Christmas.9. Epiphany, on Jan-6 celebrates the visitation of the 3 wise men to Jesus after his birth.10. Christmas is the day associated with Jesus' birth. It is celebrated on Dec-25 by Western churches and on Jan-7 the following year by Eastern Orthodox churches.11. Advent Sunday (also called the First Sunday of Advent) is the first day of an approximately 40 day period of preparation for Christmas.

ISLAM

.Islam
IntroductionIslam, major world religion. The Arabic word islam literally means “surrender” or “submission”. As the name of the religion it is understood to mean “surrender or submission to God”. One who has thus surrendered is a Muslim. In theory, all that is necessary for one to become a Muslim is to recite sincerely the short statement of faith known as the shahadah: I witness that there is no god but God [Allah] and that Muhammad is the Messenger of God. Although in an historical sense Muslims regard their religion as dating from the time of Muhammad in the early 7th century ad, in a religious sense they see it as identical with the true monotheism which prophets before Muhammad, such as Abraham (Ibrahim), Moses (Musa), and Jesus (Isa), had taught. In the Koran, Abraham is referred to as a Muslim. The followers of these and other prophets are held to have corrupted their teachings, but God in His mercy sent Muhammad to call mankind yet again to the truth.Traditionally, Islam has been regarded by its followers as extending over all areas of life, not merely those (such as faith and worship) which are commonly viewed as the sphere of religion today. Thus many Muslims prefer to call Islam a way of life rather than a religion. It is for this reason too that the word Islam, especially when referring to the past, is often used to refer to a society, culture or civilization, as well as to a religion. While a history of Christianity will usually cover only matters relating to religion in a narrow sense, a history of Islam may discuss, for example, political developments, literary and artistic life, taxation and landholding, tribal and ethnic migrations, etc. In this wider sense Islam is the equivalent not only of Christianity but also of what is often called Christendom.Adherents of a religion may differ among themselves regarding what constitutes the essence of the religion, what is more important or less important, what is right belief and what heresy, etc. Modern students of religions, when attempting to describe a particular religion, may attempt to get around this problem by accepting the definitions given by some authoritative body or individual such as a Church council or the pope in Roman Catholicism. Such an expedient is not really possible for someone wishing to discuss Islam, however, since, at least before the modern period, there has been no body claiming to be the central authority for all Muslims. Instead, religious authority and power has been diffused at a local level among countless scholars and religious officials who lack a clearly defined hierarchy or organization. An individual obtains religious authority as a result of a consensus regarding his learning and piety. In theory, at least, most positions of such authority are open to all.In modern times there have been attempts to promote the idea that particular bodies or individuals have a special authority in Islam. In Sunni Islam, for example, the council of the Azhar university in Cairo is sometimes regarded as having a special authority while among the Shiites of Iran a hierarchy of religious scholars has developed and been recognized by the state. Even so, no body or individual has managed to establish itself as authoritative for all Muslims, and claims to be so are always contested.It is not possible, therefore, to make many general statements about what Islam is or is not, without their being open to contest by groups or individuals with a different view of the religion. Certain ideas and especially practices have become so widely accepted among Muslims in general that they might be viewed as distinguishing features of Islam but even then there will be groups or individuals who reject them but still regard themselves as Muslims. In general, one should avoid terms like “orthodoxy” and “heresy” when discussing Islam.
The Emergence and Early Expansion of IslamTraditional accounts of the emergence of Islam stress the role of Muhammad, who lived in western Arabia (Al ?ijaz) at the beginning of the 7th century ad. Muhammad experienced a series of verbal revelations from God. Among other things, these revelations stressed the oneness of God, called mankind to worship Him, and promised that God would reward or punish men according to their behaviour in this world. Muhammad was to proclaim God's message to the people among whom he lived, most of whom practised polytheism.After an initial period in which he was rejected in his home town of Mecca, Muhammad was able to found a community and a state with himself as its head in the town which soon came to be called Medina. By the time of his death in 632, several of the Arab tribes and a number of towns, including Mecca, had submitted to Muhammad and accepted Islam. Following his death the caliphate was established to provide for succession to Muhammad in his role as the head of the community, although prophecy, in the form of immediate verbal revelations from God, ceased with Muhammad.Shortly after his death the process of collecting together all the revelations which he had received in his lifetime began. The tradition is not unanimous, but it is widely accepted that this work was completed under Uthman (caliph 644-656) and that it was in his time that the revelations were put together to form the text of the Koran as we know it.The most important beliefs, institutions, and ritual practices of Islam are traditionally seen as originating in the time of Muhammad, and frequently they are understood to be the result of divine revelation. Sometimes a Koranic passage is seen as the source or justification of a practice or belief. Not all of them, however, can be associated with a relevant Koranic text and often they are seen to have originated in the practice of the prophet Muhammad himself. Since he was a prophet, much of what he said and did is understood not as merely the result of personal and arbitrary decisions but as a result of divine guidance. Thus the practice of Muhammad, which came to be known as the Sunna, serves as an example and a source of guidance for Muslims alongside the Koran, especially for Sunnis.Under the caliphs who governed the community and state following Muhammad, a period of territorial expansion began, first in Arabia and then beyond its borders. By about 650 Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and the western parts of Persia had been conquered by Arab forces which acknowledged the leadership of the caliphs in Medina. In about 660 the caliphate passed into the control of the Umayyad dynasty which was based in Syria. Under the Umayyads a second wave of expansion took place. By the time that dynasty was overthrown in 750 it controlled territories extending from Spain and Morocco in the west to Afghanistan and central Asia in the east.Modern scholarship has tended to show the emergence and expansion of Islam as a more gradual and complex process than is apparent from the traditional accounts. By emphasizing the relative lateness of the Muslim accounts of the early history of Islam (there is little which can be dated in the form in which we have it to before about 800), it has raised the possibility that the traditional accounts should be understood as reflecting rather late views. It has suggested that the period when Islam was developing outside Arabia following the Arab conquest of the Middle East is of crucial importance. It has emphasized, as is clear from the traditional sources themselves, that the Arab conquests may have expanded the area under the control of the caliphs but that the spread of Islam at a personal level was much slower. The conquerors did not force the people they conquered to become Muslims and probably did not even intend that they should do so. The acceptance of Islam as a religion by the non-Arab peoples under the rule of the caliphs was a slow, uneven, and never-completed process, motivated by many things, some of which are not properly understood. It is also now better understood that these non-Arab peoples, gradually accepting Islam (and identifying themselves as Arabs at the same time), had much to do with the emergence of Islam as we know it.
Main BeliefsMuslims believe that there is one God, Allah; that Muhammad was a prophet sent by God to mankind; and that the Koran is the collection of the revelations which God made to Muhammad. The Koran thus contains the words of God in a literal sense and is often referred to as the Speech of God (kalam Allah).The vast majority of Muslims accept that Muhammad was the last in a series of prophets sent by God and that there can be no other after him. The Koranic phrase “the seal of the prophets” is understood by them in this sense. Some groups have regarded themselves as Muslims while recognizing prophets, or something like prophets, after Muhammad, but their status as Muslims has been contested by the majority of the community.The concept of “prophet” in Islam shares much with the idea as it had developed in Judaism and Christianity by the early centuries of the Christian era. The Arabic word nabi, which is one of the two most frequent words for “prophet” in Islam, is related to the Hebrew nebi, the most usual word for “prophet” in the Old Testament. The basic idea is of someone who is given a message by God to deliver either to mankind as a whole or to a specific group. Muslim tradition recognizes numerous prophets sent by God before Muhammad, and most of them are known in Jewish and Christian tradition from the Bible and other writings.In Muslim belief, it came to be commonly held that some of the earlier prophets had been entrusted with a revelation just as Muhammad had been sent with the Koran, and in essence these revelations were identical with one another. The revelation of Moses was the Torah and that of Jesus the Gospel (injil in Arabic, ultimately from Greek evaggelion). According to this concept, there is only one Gospel and it is the book of revelation entrusted to Jesus. It is not the same as any one of the four gospels preserved in the New Testament, which are different accounts of the life of Jesus. In the Koran and other writings Jesus is referred to as the Messiah (Masih) and as the Word of God. He was miraculously born of the Virgin Mary and his life was asociated with many miracles. Nevertheless he was not the “Son of God”, a concept which Islam rejects as a physical and logical impossibility. He did not die on the Cross, even though it seemed so to those who were present. Instead someone else died in his place and God raised Jesus up to Himself.Some of the Muslim ideas about prophets and prophethood, and about Jesus, are similar to those associated with Judaeo-Christian groups whose existence is attested in the early centuries of the Christian era. Some scholars have suggested that descendants of those groups had an influence on the emergence of Islam.In addition to the physical world, God has also created angels and spirits. The angels have various roles, among them the conveyance of God's revelation to the prophets. The spirits are usually known as the jinni. They inhabit this world and may affect human beings in various ways. Some are good and capable of obtaining salvation, others are evil and sometimes known as satans. The chief satan, the Devil, known as Satan or Iblis, is sometimes thought of as a disobedient angel, sometimes as a jinni. He has been allowed by God to roam the world and do evil deeds.The world will end, and Islam has a rich body of eschatological and apocalyptic tradition. Before the world ends the Mahdi, a sort of Messiah figure, will appear to inaugurate a short period in which the world will be filled with justice and righteousness. The idea of the Mahdi is more prominent in Shiite Islam (see below) but is not limited to the Shiite tradition. After death, each human being will be judged and will either achieve salvation or be consigned to damnation according to his or her beliefs and deeds while alive.

Islamic Law
Although the essence of Islam is acceptance of the one God and of the prophethood of Muhammad, in practice adherence to Islam has traditionally been manifested by living a life according to Islamic law within an Islamic community. The law is regarded as of divine origin: although it is administered and interpreted by human beings (and, as in most religions, that means men rather than women), it is understood as the law of God. The law is known as the Shari'ah. To obey the law is to obey God. One should not underestimate the importance of questions of belief and dogma in Islam, but generally speaking for Muslims, Islam has been more a matter of right behaviour than of concern with the niceties of belief.Traditionally, Muslims have held that the law was revealed by God in the Koran and in the Sunna. In addition to those two theoretical sources, different groups within Sunni and Shiite Islam accept that law may be derived from certain subsidiary sources such as the consensus of the Muslims (usually called ijmaa), the informed reasoning of individual scholars (often called ijtihad), and various more specific and limited forms of these.Many modern scholars have accepted the views of Joseph Schacht, who argued that the idea of the Sunna and the theory of the sources of Islamic law did not really develop until the 9th century and that Islamic law is not really derived from the Koran and the Sunna. Rather, according to this view, it has evolved gradually from a variety of sources (such as earlier legal systems and ad hoc decisions made by early Arab rulers), and the classical Muslim theory of the sources of Islamic law was developed by the early Muslim scholars (culminating in the work of al-Shafii) in order to put the positive law which had evolved in the first centuries of Islam on a proper Islamic basis. These scholars, it is argued, looked at the law as it existed in their own day; reformed, rejected or accepted it; and then sought to portray it as deriving from the Koran, the Sunna or one of the other classical sources. Since there was a limit to what could be attributed to the Koran (which is relatively short and only partly concerned with establishing legal rules on a few questions), it was the Sunna (as reported in the hadiths) which was in practice most important. Since there was virtually no limit to the way in which hadiths could be interpreted or reworded, and new ones put into circulation, it was usually easier to find a hadith to support a particular legal rule than it was a Koranic text.After the classical theory of the sources of law had come to be accepted, many and voluminous law books and hadith collections were produced, and law became the predominant expression of Islam. Islamic law concerns itself with far wider areas of public and private life than does a modern secular legal system. Economics, politics, matters of diet and dress, penal and civil law, warfare, and many other aspects of social and private life are, in theory at least, regulated by Islamic law. To live a life according to the law has probably been the main religious ideal for most Muslims, although one should not conclude that Islam is merely a legalistic religion.Modern Islamic states have frequently adopted legal codes based on those of the West and have limited the sphere governed by Islamic law to personal and family matters: inheritance, marriage and divorce, etc. Even in these areas reforms have been made to traditional Islamic law, but these reforms are usually justified by reference to the traditional doctrine of the sources.
The Practices of Islam
Five duties have traditionally been seen as obligatory for all Muslims, although some mystics (Sufis) have allegorized them and many Muslims observe them only partially. These duties are the so-called five pillars of Islam: bearing witness to the unity and uniqueness of God and to the prophethood of Muhammad (shahadah); prayer at the prescribed times each day (salat); fasting during the month of Ramadan (sawm); pilgrimage to Mecca, and the performance of certain prescribed rituals in and around Mecca at a specified time of the year (hajj); and paying a certain amount out of one's wealth as alms for the poor and some other categories of Muslims (zakat). The first of these pillars balances external action (the recitation of the shahadah) with internal conviction (although different groups within Islam have held different views about the relative importance of recitation and belief in the shahadah); the other four, although they take belief for granted, consist predominantly of external acts.There are other duties and practices regarded as obligatory. As in Judaism, the eating of pork is prohibited and male circumcision is the norm (the latter is not mentioned in the Koran). Consumption of alcohol is forbidden. Meat must be slaughtered according to an approved ritual or else it is not halal.In some Muslim communities practices which are essentially local customs have come to be identified as Islamic: the wearing of a sari, for example. There are variant practices concerning the covering of the head or face of a woman in public. A Koranic text is interpreted by some to mean that the entire head and face of a woman should be covered, by others as indicating that some sort of veil or head scarf should be worn. Others argue that the Koran does not require any such covering.

Sacred Places
The centre of Muslim life, apart from the home, is the mosque or masjid (Arabic, “place of prostration in prayer”) where the prescribed prayers are performed five times daily (in some Shiite groups only three times daily). The prayers are performed while facing Mecca, the site of the Kaaba and the birthplace of Muhammad, and the mosque wall which is closest to Mecca has a niche known as the mihrab built into it to show the direction of the holy city.The Kaaba at Mecca, a simple and relatively small cubical building, is often referred to as the “house of God”, although without any implication that He is present there more than anywhere else. It is explained as having been built by Abraham at the command of God. At the time when he built it, Abraham called all peoples at all times to come there and perform the ceremonies of the hajj. In the south-east corner of the Kaaba on the outside wall is fixed a black stone which receives special reverence and is often said to have originated from Paradise. It was sent down to comfort Adam in his grief when he was expelled from there. By the time of Muhammad the pure monotheism which, according to Muslim belief, had been instituted at Mecca by Abraham, had become corrupted by idolatry and polytheism, and it was the task of Muhammad to restore the pure religion and re-establish monotheistic worship at the Kaaba. Around the Kaaba there has grown up a huge mosque known as al-Masjid al-Haram (“the sacred mosque”).In addition to Mecca various other places have a special status in Islam. At Medina, the town to which Muhammad moved when his preaching in Mecca had aroused opposition, the second holiest mosque in Islam grew up around his tomb. Jerusalem is the third most revered sanctuary, in part because of its association with prophets before Muhammad, in part because of the tradition that Muhammad was miraculously taken there from Mecca by night. From there he is said to have been taken up to heaven before being returned on the same night to the place where he had been sleeping in Mecca. Above the huge rock in Jerusalem which is regarded as the very place from which Muhammad's ascension began, the Dome of the Rock was built. This is one of the earliest and most beautiful buildings of Islam, first constructed around 690 on the orders of the caliph Abd al-Malik.For Shiite Muslims other cities, often associated with their Imams, achieved a special status: An Najaf and Karbala’ in Iraq, and Mashhad and Qom in Iran, are the most important.

The Islamic Year and Festivals
The Islamic era is known as that of that of the hijra (sometimes Latinized and Anglicized as Hegira) since its starting point is the year in which Muhammad moved from Mecca to Medina (ad 622), an event known in Muslim tradition as the hijra (variously translated as “flight”, “emigration” or “exodus”). The calendar is based on the Moon rather than the Sun, a year consisting of 12 months, each counted as the time between the appearance of one new moon and that of the next. The year thus lasts for about 354 days, approximately 11 days less than the solar year used in the common calendar. Since intercalation is forbidden in the law, the Islamic year bears no fixed relationship to the seasons. Relative to the solar year, each day in the Muslim year falls 11 days earlier each year. Thus the festivals and major events of the Muslim year eventually circulate through all the seasons.The Hijri year begins with the month of Muharram, but no special significance is attached to the new year's day. The ninth month of the year, Ramadan, is the obligatory month of fasting, and every Muslim who has the duty to fast (there are some who are relieved of it because of illness or another reason) should abstain from food, drink, and sexual pleasure during the hours of daylight. The first day of the tenth month, Shawwal, marks the end of the fast and is a day of great rejoicing. It is the major festival of the year and is variously known as “the great festival”, “the festival of the breaking of the fast” or simply “the festival” (al-eed). The last month of the year is Dhul-Hijjah, and the first half of it is the time for the annual ceremonies connected with the hajj at Mecca. The core of the hajj, when all the pilgrims take part together, occurs between the eighth and tenth of the month. On the tenth the pilgrims sacrifice a great number of animals at Mina, close to Mecca, and in many parts of the Islamic world sacrifices are also performed on this day. This is known as “the lesser festival” (al-eed al-sagheer) or “the festival of the sacrifice” (eed al-qurban or eed al-adha).The tenth day of the first month, Muharram, is called Ashura (an Aramaic word meaning “tenth”). This has a special importance for Shiite Muslims. On it they commemorate what in their view was the martyrdom of their third Imam, Husain, the son of Ali ibn Abi Talib. He was killed on Ashura day in 680 at Karbala’ in Iraq, fighting against a Muslim ruler whom the Shiites regard as a usurper and tyrant. For Shiites the day is a sad one, marked in some places by processions, public weeping, and even sometimes self-flagellation.Other events and festivals occur at various times during the year but do not have the official religious significance of those just mentioned. For example, the birthday of the Prophet Muhammad (mawlid al-nabee) is widely celebrated in the fifth month of the year and in some places is marked by the recitation of poems in his honour. This festival, however, seems to be quite late in origin. Since the precise date of Muhammad's birth is not known, the month was probably chosen because it is the most widely accepted date for his death and a symmetry between birth and death was assumed. For the Shiites the birthdays of Ali and his wife Fatima are also celebrated.One of the odd-numbered days towards the end of Ramadan (the precise day is disputed) is marked with reverence as the “night of power” (lailat al-qadr) when, it is widely believed, God makes His decrees concerning everything which is to occur in the following year.Friday is sometimes referred to as the Muslim sabbath, like Saturday for Jews and Sunday for Christians. It is not officially a day of rest, but the midday prayer service on Friday is the most important of the week, should be observed, if possible, in a large congregational mosque, and has a more elaborate form than that of the normal prayer service. The ritual contains a special sermon (khutba) delivered by a preacher who stands on a minbar, a sort of pulpit which is a prominent part of the furniture of a mosque.
The Main Groups of IslamIn the period of its early development Islam developed three main divisions: Sunni, Shiite, and Kharijii. Historically, the division between them is said to go back to a civil war between the Arabs between ad 656 and 661, following their conquest of the heartlands of the Middle East. As religious groups in the form in which we know them, however, the three traditions took considerably longer than that to emerge. The two most important of them, the Sunni and the Shiite, did not really crystallize before the 3rd to 9th centuries. The fundamental issue which divides the three groups is that of authority—who should be the source of authority in Islam and what sort of authority they should have.
Muslim MysticismFrom an early period in the development of Islam some individuals and groups began to feel that it was not enough simply to live according to the law and hope to achieve salvation in that way. They desired a stronger religious experience and sought to become closer to God through a variety of devotional and meditational practices, and sometimes through an austere ascetic way of life. Those who engaged in such practices came to be called Sufis. The characteristic aim of Sufism was to obtain a direct experience of God. This is a form of spirituality which has similarities in religions other than Islam and is usually referred to as mysticism. It has often been viewed with suspicion by non-mystical religious authorities who see it as a threat to institutional religion. The practices and beliefs of the Sufis came to be feared as possible rivals to those followed by the majority of ordinary Muslims.In 922 a leading Muslim mystic, al-Hallaj, was executed by the ruling authorities for claiming, so it was alleged, that his experience of God had been so immediate that he had become completely united with the divinity. This was described as a form of polytheism by his opponents. Nevertheless, Sufi ideas remained attractive to many. It is al-Ghazali, one of the pivotal figures in the history of Sunni Islam, who is credited with bringing about the compromise which made it possible henceforth for Sufism to be regarded as a legitimate and important expression of Islam. Al-Ghazali argued that it is important to understand the deeper meaning of the law and not just to adhere to it blindly.In the centuries following al-Ghazali the influence of Sufism in Islam became more widespread as various orders or “paths” (tariqas) came into existence. These are brotherhoods of Sufis which are distinguished by the allegiance they owe to a particular Sufi master. They involve a process of initiation and they appeal to various social classes. Some of them have a local basis, others cover large areas of the Islamic world. They provide not only an important means for the expression of spirituality in Islam but also a focus of loyalty within a universalist religion.
Islam in the Modern WorldFrom the end of the 18th century onwards the Islamic world began to experience the increasing pressure of the military and political power and technological advances of the modern West. After centuries of Islamic political and cultural strength and self-confidence, it became clear that at the economic and technical level at least the world of Islam had fallen behind. Part of the shock came from the fact that the Western countries were at least nominally Christian, and yet Muslims regarded Islam as the final revelation which had supplanted Christianity.In the 20th century the creation of the state of Israel in an area which was regarded as one of the heartlands of Islam strengthened the feeling of many Muslims that there was a crisis facing them which involved their religion.One response was to argue that Islam needed to be modernized and reformed. This point of view has been held by a number of intellectuals, and various proposals for reforming the religion in what is understood as a modernist direction have been made.
Islamic FundamentalismThe second half of the 20th century has seen the rise and domination of what may be seen as the opposite approach to discovering a solution to the perceived “crisis of Islam”. It has been argued by many that the crisis facing the Muslims was a result of the willingness of many Muslims to follow the false ideas and values of the modern secular West. What is needed, it is argued, is a reassertion of traditional values. From this point of view, the crisis of Islam is seen as the result of the corruption of nominally Muslim governments and the creeping growth of secularism and Western influence in the Muslim world. Frequently, but not always, those who argue in this way espouse the use of violence in the cause of overthrowing unjust and corrupt governments. This approach is often referred to as Islamic fundamentalism.The validity of this expression is open to question and is frequently rejected by Muslims themselves. The ideas of religious “fundamentalism” seems to have originated in discussions of Christianity, where it is usually used with reference to those groups of Christians who insist that the Bible is literally the word of God and that it alone should be regarded as authoritative by Christians. In this context “tradition” is usually regarded negatively as something which has corrupted the original true form of Christianity taught by Jesus.Many Muslims do not like the use of the expression with regard to Islam since, they say, all Muslims accept that the Koran is the word of God in a very literal sense and so all Muslims are fundamentalist. Furthermore, although some “fundamentalists” try to argue that only the Koran is the true source of Islam, most accept many parts of non-Koranic tradition even though they may reject other parts. Muslim groups which are often lumped together under the heading of “fundamentalist” in fact have many differences between them.Modern proponents of this style of Islam can find their precursors in earlier centuries. Ibn Taymiyya is often cited by them since he argued for a purification of Islam from what he considered to be accretions and corruptions which had entered it by his own day. Ibn Taymiyya influenced later figures such as Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the father of Wahhabi, and it is perhaps ironic that the Saudi kingdom which came to power as a result of the strength of Wahhabi in Arabia is now one of the most prominent targets of the charge of corruption and of serving as a vehicle for Western influence in the Islamic world.Among the Sunni Muslims one of the oldest of the modern “fundamentalist” movements is that of the Muslim Brothers, which was founded in 1929. Its most influential theorist was Sayyid Qutb who was executed by the Egyptian government in 1966. More recently groups such as Hamas in Gaza and Palestine, Gamaat al-Islamiyya in Egypt, and the Fronte Islamique de Salvation (FIS) in Algeria have emerged with individual local aims but with the common objective of installing what they see as a proper Islamic government, running a state based on Islamic law, in the country where they are active. In Europe the Hizb ut-Tahrir has attracted some following, and in Malaysia the Arqam movement.Among Shiite Muslims this form of Islam achieved its greatest success with the overthrow of the ruling dynasty in Iran (Persia) and the establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran in 1979. The Islamic Republic governed by Ayatollah Khomeini and his successors then offered support to groups such as Hizbollah in Lebanon as well as to Sunni movements like Hamas and Islamic Jihad.The ability of such groups to capture the headlines, and the difficulties they have posed for governments, Muslim and non-Muslim, in many parts of the world, has sometimes led to the claim that Islam is of its very nature fundamentalist (which in this context usually means aggressive and expansionist). This claim is sometimes supported by reference to the importance of the doctrine of jihad (holy war) in traditional Islam and the importance of the Arab conquests in the earliest stages of the emergence of Islam.In reality, however, Muslims, like followers of other religions, have behaved in a variety of ways and presented various images of their religion according to differing historical contexts. While it would be wrong to underestimate the strength of movements such as those named above, or their ability to attract the sympathy of other Muslims, it would equally be wrong to overestimate the degree of unity between the various manifestations of “Islamic fundamentalism” or to fall into the trap of thinking that each religion is characterized by a particular spirit or quality which is unchanging and always dominant.

Islam as a World ReligionThere are no exact figures for the number of Muslims in the world today. It seems clear, however, that in terms of numbers Islam at least matches those of Christianity, the other most widespread religion today.From its heartlands in the Middle East and North Africa the religion spread before the modern period to many parts of sub-Saharan Africa, to central Asia, to the Indian subcontinent, and to East and South East Asia. In Europe, Sicily and most of Spain were part of the Islamic world during the Middle Ages, and most of the Balkans came to be ruled by the Muslim Ottoman Empire, with its capital at Istanbul, at various times between about 1300 and the end of World War I. In modern times Islam has spread as a result of emigration so that there are now large Muslim communities in parts of western Europe, North America, South Africa, and Australia.The Sunni form of the religion is dominant in most countries apart from Iran, but there are large Shiite populations in Iraq and Lebanon, in Bahrain and eastern Saudi Arabia, and, to a lesser extent, in Central and South Asia.It is a mistake to think that Islam has always been spread by warfare. Although, as has been noted above, its birth was associated with the Arab conquest of the Middle East and North Africa in the 7th century, and although it entered the Balkans as a result of the Ottoman expansion from 1300 onwards and spread in west Africa following a jihad in the 18th century, the religion of Islam has not generally been forced upon people by the sword. Periods of military conquest have usually been aimed at expanding the territories under Muslim rule rather than at forcing the conversion of non-Muslims to Islam.Conversion to Islam has usually followed quite slowly, sometimes against the wishes of the Muslim rulers, after a territory has come under Muslim rule. The adoption of Islam as their religion has usually resulted from the wishes and actions of people wanting to become Muslim, not because it was forced upon them against their will. Why some people have been attracted to Islam and others not is a complex question involving many different religious, social, political,and economic factors. In some parts of the world, trade and the cultural attraction of Islamic civilization have been as important as preaching in the spread of the religion. Sufi brotherhoods have also done much to spread the religion in particular areas.Like Christianity (and like Buddhism) Islam is a universal religion open to all irrespective of nationality, gender or social status. Of course, normal ethnic and social divisions exist among Muslims, but one of the attractions of Islam is its insistence on the fundamental equality of all Muslims before God. One of its greatest strengths has been the way in which various peoples have been able to find a sense of their own identity in Islam.

Pyaw La Ai Bum Langai

Pyaw La Ai Bum Langai

(Table Mountain)



Lani mi na n htoi hta ngai hte Nye manang gaw grai nga lagawn ai majaw Bum langai de sa hkawm lu ai. Lam hkawm ai n re sha madang tsaw ai hku lung ai Taller ngu ai Jak hte re. Lam hkawm lu jang 3 hours na ai hpe dai Jak hte 5 mnt hte lung ai.

















Dai Bum gaw Table Mountains ngu ai Bum re. Dai Bum hpe South Africa, Cape Town ngu ai mare kaba a mying dan hkung ai Bum langai re nga ai. Dai mare kaw sa chyai ai ni yawng dai hpe dum hkra hkawm jai lung ma ai.




Dai Bum gaw Bum kaji 12 hte matut da ai. Dai kaw nga ai ni gaw Sape 12 Bum ngu na mung shaga ma ai. Table Mountain ngu ai hte maren kaja wa na mau na zawn rai hkra Saboi (Table) hte bung ai.










Bum n tsa kaw du ai aten hta grai pyaw ai. Tsun ga nga jang Bum n tsa kaw hpa n nga ai. raitim daikaw na shara shagu hpe mu lu ai. Shanhte ni gaw tinang a makau grup yin hpe grai pyaw hkra galaw shatsawm da ma ai. Dai hpe yu jang Nye Buga de grai dum ai.



Ngai hpa galaw ra nga a ta?

Why Interfaith Dialogue

Why inter faith dialogue

“Faith”
Is an authentic expression of a correlation between conviction and the real world. Which is tightly interconnected with everyday life experience? Therefore faith can be brought down.

“Faith”
As the essence of any religion, encourages people toward a dialogue with the individual and not as an institution.

“ a dialogue “

Is not meant to undermine differences, but a step undertaken in an to establish communications well as an expression of readiness to listen to other people’s views or to mutually respect one another and above all to be open to the views of faith other than one’s own.

“Dialogue”

Nevertheless, conflict is also inherent in a dialogue while at the same time promising in the end a more mature attitude in facing up and resolving conflict.

Hans Kung:

No Peace among the nations without peace among the religions, no peace among religion without dialogue between the religions, no dialogue between religions without investigation the foundation of the religions.

Ngai Du Hkawm Ai Shara

Ngai hkawm jai ai shara ( WARMWATERBERG SPA)

Ngai grai myityu nga ai. Hpa na nga jang ngai shangai ai shara, Ngai nga kaba wa ai shara anhte mungdan wa dai daram tsawm htap nga tim hkawm jai kawan jai na shara n nga ai . Ndai ngai hkawm jai ai shara gaw tsun ga nga jang N lung Bum hkrai re. Hpun kaba ngu ai pi n nga ai. raitim shanhte nga ai masha ni kaw na wuhpung ni myit hkrum ai hte grai tsawm ai shara hku galaw da ai hpe mu lu ai. Shanhte ni a Holiday ten shagu masha ni galoi mung sa chyai ai. Yup na shara ni hpe pi aten galu kaw na tsun da ra ai.

Anhte ni gaw hpa na n mai galaw ai. Ahnhte a Ginra hpe mung dai zawn masha ni sa chyai mai ai shaga byin hkra grai galaw mayu ai. Anhte a mungdan BUMGA hpe tsawm htap hkra galaw na dai hpang masha ni galoi mung sa chyai mai ai shara kaba langai byin hkra galaw na.

Shanhte a makau grup yin hpe mung grai tsawm hkra galaw da ai. Kadai mung nammali raitim maza(rubbish) n gabai ai. Anhte ni gaw gara hku?

N dai Ngai sa ai shara kaw na Shang wa mare kaba re.

The End of Intervention

The End of Intervention
By MADELEINE K. ALBRIGHT
Published: June 11, 2008
Washington
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Enric Jardi
THE Burmese government’s criminally neglectful response to last month’s cyclone, and the world’s response to that response, illustrate three grim realities today: totalitarian governments are alive and well; their neighbors are reluctant to pressure them to change; and the notion of national sovereignty as sacred is gaining ground, helped in no small part by the disastrous results of the American invasion of Iraq. Indeed, many of the world’s necessary interventions in the decade before the invasion — in places like Haiti and the Balkans — would seem impossible in today’s climate.
The first and most obvious reality is the survival of totalitarian government in an age of global communications and democratic progress. Myanmar’s military junta employs the same set of tools used by the likes of Stalin to crush dissent and monitor the lives of citizens. The needs of the victims of Cyclone Nargis mean nothing to a regime focused solely on preserving its own authority.
Second is the unwillingness of Myanmar’s neighbors to use their collective leverage on behalf of change. A decade ago, when Myanmar was allowed to join the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, I was assured by leaders in the region that they would push the junta to open its economy and move in the direction of democracy. With a few honorable exceptions, this hasn’t happened.
A third reality is that the concept of national sovereignty as an inviolable and overriding principle of global law is once again gaining ground. Many diplomats and foreign policy experts had hoped that the fall of the Berlin Wall would lead to the creation of an integrated world system free from spheres of influence, in which the wounds created by colonial and cold war empires would heal.
In such a world, the international community would recognize a responsibility to override sovereignty in emergency situations — to prevent ethnic cleansing or genocide, arrest war criminals, restore democracy or provide disaster relief when national governments were either unable or unwilling to do so.
During the 1990s, certain precedents were created. The administration of George H. W. Bush intervened to prevent famine in Somalia and to aid Kurds in northern Iraq; the Clinton administration returned an elected leader to power in Haiti; NATO ended the war in Bosnia and stopped Slobodan Milosevic’s campaign of terror in Kosovo; the British halted a civil war in Sierra Leone; and the United Nations authorized life-saving missions in East Timor and elsewhere.
These actions were not steps toward a world government. They did reflect the view that the international system exists to advance certain core values, including development, justice and respect for human rights. In this view, sovereignty is still a central consideration, but cases may arise in which there is a responsibility to intervene — through sanctions or, in extreme cases, by force — to save lives.
The Bush administration’s decision to fight in Afghanistan after 9/11 did nothing to weaken this view because it was clearly motivated by self-defense. The invasion of Iraq, with the administration’s grandiose rhetoric about pre-emption, was another matter, however. It generated a negative reaction that has weakened support for cross-border interventions even for worthy purposes. Governments, especially in the developing world, are now determined to preserve the principle of sovereignty, even when the human costs of doing so are high.
Thus, Myanmar’s leaders have been shielded from the repercussions of their outrageous actions. Sudan has been able to dictate the terms of multinational operations inside Darfur. The government of Zimbabwe may yet succeed in stealing a presidential election.
Political leaders in Pakistan have told the Bush administration to back off, despite the growth of Al Qaeda and Taliban cells in the country’s wild northwest. African leaders (understandably perhaps) have said no to the creation of a regional American military command. And despite recent efforts to enshrine the doctrine of a “responsibility to protect” in international law, the concept of humanitarian intervention has lost momentum.
The global conscience is not asleep, but after the turbulence of recent years, it is profoundly confused. Some governments will oppose any exceptions to the principle of sovereignty because they fear criticism of their own policies. Others will defend the sanctity of sovereignty unless and until they again have confidence in the judgment of those proposing exceptions.
At the heart of the debate is the question of what the international system is. Is it just a collection of legal nuts and bolts cobbled together by governments to protect governments? Or is it a living framework of rules intended to make the world a more humane place?
We know how the government of Myanmar would answer that question, but what we need to listen to is the voice — and cry — of the Burmese people.
Madeleine K. Albright was the United States secretary of state from 1997 to 2001.

Ga Sadi

"Promise" Ga Sadi

Ndai Ga si gaw hpa a matu rai nga a ta?
Mungkan masha ni yawng gaw shani shagu lang nga ai ga si rai na re ngu kam ai . Hpa na nga jang Ga Sadi jaw sai ngu ai kaw na gaw dai hpe hkrak galaw hkawm sa ra ai. Raitim ya na mung kam masha ni gaw n gup grai law nna manang wa hpe myit mada lam grai chye jaw ai.

Dai gaw manang wa a myit masin ni, yaw shada ai lam ni yawng hpe jahkrat kau ya ai hte bung ai. Dai majaw Ga Sadi dung hkra anhte ni yawng grai shakut ra ai.

Chyum laika hta rawng ai hte maren teng ai hpe galaw u. Tinang n lu galaw yang manang wa hpe Ga sadi hkum jaw nga tsun da ai hte maren anhte ni yawng mung jawm shakut sa wa ga ngu tsun mayu ai.

Shawng Na Masha Ni

Yi Wa

Shan pyi Palawng Chywi nga ai

Shat Gawk N tawt

Shat Shadu nga ai Ding Gai

Do You have Feelings of inadequancy?

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Do you suffer from shyness?
Do you sometimes wish you were more assertive?
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White Wine is the safe, natural way to feel better and more confidentabout yourself and your actions. White Wine can help ease you out ofyour shyness and let you tell the world that you're ready and willing to dojust about anything.
You will notice the benefits of White Wine almost immediately and witha regimen of regular doses you can overcome any obstacles that preventyou from living the life you want to live.
Shyness and awkwardness will be a thing of the past and you willdiscover many talents you never knew you had. Stop hiding and start living, withWhite Wine. White Wine may not be right for everyone. Women who arepregnant or nursing should not use White Wine. However, women whowouldn't mind nursing or becoming pregnant are encouraged to try it.
Side effects may include dizziness, nausea, vomiting, incarceration,erotic lustfulness, loss of motor control, loss of clothing, loss ofmoney, loss of virginity, delusions of grandeur, table dancing,headache, dehydration, dry mouth, and a desire to sing Karaoke and play all-nightrounds of Strip Poker, Truth Or Dare, and Naked Twister.
WARNING:
The consumption of White Wine may make you think you are whisperingwhen you are not.
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The consumption of White Wine may cause you to think you can sing.
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The consumption of White Wine may lead you to believe that ex-loversare really dying for you to telephone them at four in the morning.
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Kachin State

The KachinState
WHO ARE THE KACHINS?
Kachins are Jinghpaw, Maru (Lawngwaw), Lashi (Lachit), Zaiwa (Azi), Rawang, Lisu (some books mention Yodwin) and five other sub-groups. These six major groups, including five other different sub-groups, are together known as Kachins. They have same traditions, customs, dialects and practices. Kachins originated from Central Asia (Ka-ang Shingra). They migrated from Central Asia via Persia; Tashkent and Sarmakand (Southern Russia); Mongolia; Huhethot, Kan Su, Tsing Hai Districts, Yalo Tsangpo of Republic of China. Then they were back to the Tsing Hai District (China) and landed to the place called: Chengtu (China). Then they finally migrated to the present occupied land called: The Kachinland. After migrating to the land, some of them strayed away to India (Singphos), China (Jingpos or Jinghpos, most of them in China speak Zaiwa) and most of the Kachins migrated to the Northern Burma: Kachinland. It is only about 2662 years old that the Kachins live in the present land. They were explorers, and were moving along the riverbanks where they could find fertile lands.

WHERE DO THE KACHINS LIVE?

Most of the Kachins live in their own land. They had a separate country before the British Rule, but then it became a part of Burma after the Rule. Total area of the Kachinland measures about 33,903 square miles, located between 23o-3' to 28o - 29' N Latitude and 96o - 99o E Longitudes. Kachinland is adjoining with Peoples Republic of China in the East, Democratic Republic of India in the West, Tibet in the North and Burma in the South. About 50% of the total area of the Kachinland is hills and mountains up to the height of 5,881 metres above the sea level. Kachinland is rich in natural resources. Jades and teak-timbers are the best in quality, and production of gold per unit area is the highest, in the world. The land is covered with undisturbed-natural forests. The rarest natural species like Black Orchids, White Pheasants, and golden fishes in the confluence of Mali and Nmai rivers are observed. There are mainly three seasons in the Kachinland viz., Yinam ta , sometimes also written as Lanam ta (Rainy Season), i.e., middle of May to middle of October; N'lum ta (Summer Season) is from middle of February to middle of May, and N'shung ta (Winter Season) starts from middle of October and ends in February. Annual Mean Daily Temperature ranges from 4 - 36 oC with 60 - 95% Relative Humidity. Hill cities, like Putao, have a very low temperature ranging from -4 to 18oC with low humidity. The uppermost part of Kachinland, including the most beautiful Plateau-city (Putao) falls in temperate zone. The maximum temperature of 40 oC was recorded in 1996. Annual rainfall ranges from 80 to 200 inches. More rainfall has been observed in mountainous parts of the land.
Myitkyina (is the capital city, estimated living about 4-6 million people including Non-Kachins (NKs.), Manmaw (Bhamo), Mukawng (Mogaung), Putau-U (Putao), Mohnyin, and Katha are the major cities of the Kachinland. International airport and the second largest station of Burmese railway are located in Myikyina. Ledo Road (some literature mentioned as Old StilWell Road) is connected to the world via China in the east and via India in the west. The Road is one of the most ever expensive ones in the world spending more than US $ 137 millions in some 1942 - 1944, constructed under the leadership of Gen. Stil Well. Captain E R Leech, Dr Ola Hanson, were some of the famous authors who wrote about the Kachins. Meanwhile, due to envitable circumstances of communication with the people, they could not mention the true to type of the Kachins. This book though not mentions about the Kachins in detail, it gives you true colours and real History of the Kachins in brief.
This is just a brief Introduction about the Kachins. The book: Kachins are Not Tribe, is yet to be completed due to complexity of Five or more Families. The research is done by the author et al with the due effort to support the statement while taking care of the word: Tribe. Strictly speaking, Kachins are not Tribe - they have their own Class with Five Ruling families viz., Lahtaw, Lahpai, Nhkum, Maran and Marip. Kachins originated from Ka-ang shingra and the civilization started in Majoi Shingra. Most of the Kachins and other workers understand that the Word Majoi Shingra as Mount Everest as it pronounces closely to it. The right pronunciation of the word: Majoi Shingra and its meaning for what we want is entirely different from what some of others think. Majoi Shingra for Mount Everest is a bit higher as in majoi tsun ai and Majoi Shingra for what is that not clear to us pronounces a bit lower in Majoi as in Lu Htoi or wan htoi. Thus, original place of the Kachins are not yet clear because of the gap of communication to translate Mungding Ga (Historical Words) spoken by ancestors of the Kachins. Ka-ang itself is clear, meaning: Centre while Shingra is difficult to understand at this time. Shingra, in other words, means nature or melancholy. The word melancholy is not applicable in terms of Anthropological view. Yet, there is another Mungding Ga: Majoi Shingra, to be translated. If the Word Ka-ang Shingra and Majoi Shingra is clear, the original place of the Kachins will be clear accordingly.

September 16,2008 shani hta lu hti ai laika